Nr 46 (2017): Afryka
Artykuły

Historyczno-polityczne uwarunkowania kryzysów państwowości w Gwinei Bissau

Joanna Mormul
Katedra Stosunków Międzynarodowych i Polityki Zagranicznej, Instytut Nauk Politycznych i Stosunków Międzynarodowych, Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Jabłonowskich 5, 31-114 Kraków, Polska

Opublikowane 2017-10-01

Słowa kluczowe

  • Gwinea Bissau,
  • kryzysy państwowości,
  • historia Gwinei Bissau,
  • polityka Gwinei Bissau,
  • dysfunkcyjność państwa

Abstrakt

Artykuł poddaje analizie historyczno-polityczne uwarunkowania kryzysów państwowości w Gwinei Bissau. W niepodległej historii tego państwa zauważalna jest tendencja zdobywania władzy politycznej poprzez wojskowe zamachy stanu oraz nieustannie podejmowane przez wysokich rangą dowódców sił zbrojnych próby wywierania wpływu na niestabilną scenę polityczną. Od czasu wprowadzenia systemu wielopartyjnego w 1994 r. żadnemu z prezydentów nie udało się dotrwać do końca kadencji. Zjawisko to jest uznawane za podstawową i mającą charakter systemowy przyczynę kryzysów państwowości nękających Gwineę Bissau. Poprzez przedstawienie momentów zwrotnych w jej najnowszej historii oraz nakreślenie kontekstu międzynarodowego, zwłaszcza w wymiarze regionalnym, Autorka stara się zdiagnozować przyczyny braku stabilności politycznej w Gwinei Bissau.

Bibliografia

  1. Adebajo A., Building Peace in West Africa: Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea-Bissau, Boulder, Colorado 2002.
  2. Arvanitis Y., Guinée-Bissau 2015, „Perspective économiques en Afrique”, Banque africaine de développement, 2015.
  3. Bissau Port Project, World Bank, http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P000979/bissau-port-project?lang=en (19.07.2015).
  4. Boubacar-Sid B., Wodon Q., Conflict, Growth, and Poverty in Guinea-Bissau, [w:] Conflict, Livelihoods, and Poverty in Guinea-Bissau, red. B. Boubacar-Sid, E.G.E. Creppy, E. Gacitua-Mario, Q. Wodon, World Bank Working Paper, no. 88, Washington D.C. 2007.
  5. Brzezińska M., Kontrakt z duchami. Czary i religia w Gwinei Bissau, Sopot 2014.
  6. Carrier N., Klantschnig G., Africa and the War on Drugs, London 2012.
  7. Chabal P., Amilcar Cabral: Revolutionary Leadership and People’s War, London 2002.
  8. Châtelot C., Boundaries of Casamance remain blurred after 30 years of conflict, „The Guardian”, 19.06.2012, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/19/casamanceguinea-bissau-gambia-senegal (22.07.2017).
  9. Conakry Agreement on the Implementation of the ECOWAS Roadmap for the Resolution of the Political Crisis in Guinea-Bissau, 14.10.2016, http://www.odemocratagb.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/CONAKRY-AGREEMENT-ON-GUINEABISSAU_versao-inglesa.pdf (23.07.2017).
  10. Confusion over Guinea-Bissau PM after ‘coup’, BBC News, 13.04.2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17700886 (3.12.2012).
  11. Corruption Perceptions Index 2013, Transparency International, https://www.transparency.org/cpi2013/results (21.07.2015).
  12. Darame B., Missão militar angolana começa a deixar a Guiné-Bissau, Deutsche Welle, 6.06.2012, http://www.dw.com/pt/missão-militar-angolana-começa-a-deixar-aguiné-bissau/a-16005666 (29.07.2015).
  13. Djau U., 6 killed in attack on Guinea-Bissau military barracks, CNN, 22.10.2012, http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/22/world/africa/guinea-bissau-unrest/ (29.07.2015).
  14. Doing Business 2015. Equal Opportunity for All, World Bank Group, Washington D.C. 2016, http://www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/WBG/DoingBusiness/Documents/Annual-Reports/English/DB17-Report.pdf (21.07.2017).
  15. Drug Trafficking as a Security Threat in West Africa, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna, November 2008, https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Studies/Drug-Traffi cking-WestAfrica-English.pdf (20.08.2015).
  16. Einarsdóttir J., Partnership and State Fragility: Guinea-Bissau a Case Study, [w:] Current Challenges to Peacebuilding Efforts and Development Assistance, red. K. Pędziwiatr, P. Kugiel, A. Dańda, Kraków 2011.
  17. EU imposes sanctions on Guinea-Bissau coup leaders, BBC News, 3.05.2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17939776 (3.12.2012).
  18. Failed States Index 2006, The Fund for Peace, http://www.fundforpeace.org/global/?q=fsi-grid2006 (15.11.2012).
  19. Failed States Index 2013, The Fund for Peace, http://fsi.fundforpeace.org/rankings-2013-sortable (17.07.2015).
  20. Fistein D., Guinea-Bissau: How a Successful Social Revolution Can Become an Obstacle to Subsequent State-Building, “International Journal of African Historical Studies”, t. 44, 2011, nr 3.
  21. Forrest J.B., Guinea-Bissau Since Independence: A Decade of Domestic Power Struggles, „The Journal of Modern African Studies”, t. 25, 1987, nr 1.
  22. Foucher V., Le Sénégal de Wade Face à la Guinée-Bissau: Pays-frère, Tuteur ou Hégémon?, South African Foreign Policy and African Drivers Programme, Occasional Paper no. 139, South African Institute of International Affairs, April 2013.
  23. Fragile States Index 2016, Fragile States Index 2017, The Fund for Peace, http://fundforpeace.org/fsi/data/ (20.07.2017).
  24. Gacitua-Mario E., Aasland S., Nordang H., Wodon Q., Institutions, Social Networks, and Conflicts in Guinea-Bissau. Results from a 2005 Survey, [w:] Conflict, Livelihoods, and Poverty in Guinea-Bissau, red. B. Boubacar-Sid, E. G. E. Creppy, E. Gacitua-Mario, Q. Wodon, World Bank Working Paper, no. 88, Washington D.C. 2007.
  25. Gawrycki M.F., Kurowska J., „Internacjonalistyczne” misje Hawany, [w:] Kuba i Afryka. Sojusz dla rewolucji, red. M.F. Gawrycki, W. Lizak, Warszawa 2006.
  26. Guinea-Bissau army chief Gen Antonio Indjai sacked, BBC News, 16.09.2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-29220830 (22.07.2017).
  27. Guinea-Bissau drug trade rises since coup, BBC News, 31.07.2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19060861 (6.05.2013).
  28. Guinea-Bissau leader dissolves cabinet after judgement, Al Jazeera, 10.09.2015, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/09/guinea-bissau-leader-dissolves-cabinetjudgement-150910150619511.html (21.07.2017).
  29. Guinea-Bissau names new prime minister, fifth in nine months, DW, 19.11.2016, http://www.dw.com/en/guinea-bissau-names-new-prime-minister-fifth-in-nine-months/a-36448890 (22.07.2017).
  30. Guinea-Bissau president dismisses government, Al Jazeera, 13.08.2015, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2015/08/guinea-bissau-president-dismisses-government-150813025611733.html (21.07.2017).
  31. Guinea-Bissau suspended from African Union, Al Jazeera English, 17.04.2012, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/04/20124171148930754.html (3.12.2012). Council Regulation (EU) No 377/2012 of 3 May 2012 concerning restrictive measures directed against certain persons, entities and bodies threatening the peace, security or stability of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau, EUR-Lex. Access to European Union Law, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32012R0377&from=EN (25.07.2017).
  32. Guinea-Bissau, The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, dane aktualizowane 18.07.2017, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pu.html (20.07.2017).
  33. Guinea-Bissau: in need of a state, International Crisis Group, Africa Report nr 142, lipiec 2008, http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/west-africa/guinea-bissau/Guinea-Bissau%20In%20Need%20of%20a%20State.pdf (10.05.2014).
  34. Guinea-Bissau’s ‘unconstitutional’ PM Baciro Dja resigns, BBC News, 9.09.2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-34203240 (21.07.2017).
  35. Guinea-Bissau’s President Vaz sacks his government, BBC News, 13.08.2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33903396 (21.07.2017).
  36. Guiné-Bissau: Inconformados com a crise política não desistem da reivindicação, DW, 10.07.2017, http://www.dw.com/pt-002/guin%C3%A9-bissau-inconformados-com-acrise-pol%C3%ADtica-n%C3%A3o-desistem-da-reivindica%C3%A7%C3%A3o/a-39620343 (20.07.2017).
  37. Guinée-Bissau: un premier contingent de la Cédéao quitte le pays, RFI Afrique, 5.06.2017, http://www.rfi .fr/afrique/20170605-guinee-bissau-ecomib-cedeao-retraitnigerians-burkinabes-senegalais (22.07.2017).
  38. Gwinea Bissau: UE znosi ograniczenia dotyczące współpracy, Rada Europejska/Rada Unii Europejskiej, komunikat prasowy 149/15, 24.03.2015, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/pl/press/press-releases/2015/03/24-guinea-bisau-eu-lifts-restrictions-oncooperation/ (21.07.2015).
  39. Haque N., Protesters call for political change in Guinea-Bissau, Al Jazeera, 8.07.2017, http://www.aljazeera.com/video/news/2017/07/protesters-call-political-changeguinea-bissau-170708132738862.html (21.07.2017).
  40. Hirsh A., Guinea-Bissau coup suspected as military seizes parts of capital, „The Guardian”, 13.04.2012, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/apr/13/guinea-bissau-coupsuspected (2.12.2012).
  41. Historique de l’UEMOA, Union Economique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine, http://www.uemoa.int/Pages/UEMOA/L_UEMOA/Historique.aspx (17.07.2015).
  42. Karibe Mendy P., Lobban Jr. R.A., Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau, Lanham, Maryland 2013.
  43. Kłosowicz R., Mormul J., Pojęcie dysfunkcyjności państw – geneza i definicje, [w:] Państwa dysfunkcyjne i ich destabilizujący wpływ na stosunki międzynarodowe, red. R. Kłosowicz, Kraków 2013.
  44. Kohl C., Guinea-Bissau, [w:] Africa Yearbook. Politics, Economy and Society South of the Sahara in 2013, red. A. Mehler, H. Melber, K. van Walraven, Leiden/Boston 2014.
  45. Kohnert D., Democratisation via elections in an ‘African narco-state’? The case of Guinea-Bissau, GIGA - German Institute of Global and Area Studies/Institute of African Affairs, December 2009, MPRA Paper No. 19109.
  46. Koudawo F., Histoire et quête de légitimité politique pendent les premières élections pluralistes en Guinée-Bissau, „Lusotopie”, 1995.
  47. Kyle S., Guinea Bissau Primary Commodity Vulnerability, [w:] Economics of Africa, red. E. Aryeetey, S. Devarajan, R. Kanbur, L. Kasekende, Oxford 2014.
  48. Lizak W., Kryzys w Mali. Rola afrykańskich sił pokojowych AFISMA, [w:] Konteksty bezpieczeństwa w Afryce. Konflikty, wojny, polityki bezpieczeństwa, red. A. Żukowski, Forum Politologiczne, tom 17, Olsztyn 2014.
  49. Lopes C., Amilcar Cabral: a contemporary inspiration, “African Identities”, t. 4, 2006, z. 1.
  50. Machado F.L., Da Guiné-Bissau a Portugal: Luso-Guineenses e Imigrantes, „Sociologia, Problemas e Práticas”, 1998, nr 26.
  51. Machado F.L., Subsídios para o Estudo do Movimento Migratório na Guiné-Bissau, „Soronda. Revista de Estudos Guineenses”, Janeiro 2002, Nova Série, nr 3.
  52. MacQueen N., Widening trajectories: Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde since independence, Instituto Português de Relações Internacionais – IPRI, 1.02.2006, http://www.ipri.pt/artigos/artigo.php?ida=104 (29.07.2015).
  53. Marut J.-C., Le conflit de Casamance. Ce qui disent les armes, Paris 2010.
  54. McFate S., Securing the Future: A Primer on Security Sector Reform in Conflict Countries, United States Institute of Peace Special Report, no. 209, September 2008, http://www.usip.org/sites/default/fi les/resources/sr209.pdf (19.07.2015).
  55. Miller J., Drug barons turn Bissau into Africa’s first narco-state, „Belfast Telegraph”, 18.07.2007, http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/drug-barons-turnbissau-into-africas-fi rst-narcostate-13459758.html (17.11.2012).
  56. Mormul J., Conflict Prevention in a Failed State: Guinea-Bissau and the International Peace and Prosperity Project, [w:] The Changing Places and Faces of War, red. S. Wagner, P. M. Kreuter, Oxford 2014.
  57. Mormul J., Czołowe instytucje międzynarodowe zajmujące się dysfunkcyjnością państw, [w:] Państwa dysfunkcyjne i ich destabilizujący wpływ na stosunki międzynarodowe, red. R. Kłosowicz, Kraków 2013.
  58. Mormul J., Przemyt narkotyków a zagrożenie bezpieczeństwa państw Afryki Zachodniej. Casus Gwinei Bissau, [w:] Konteksty bezpieczeństwa w Afryce. Konflikty, wojny, polityki bezpieczeństwa, red. A. Żukowski, Forum Politologiczne, tom 17, Olsztyn 2014.
  59. Neese Bybee A., Narco state or failed state? Narcotics and politics in Guinea-Bissau, PhD dissertation submitted to School of Public Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 2011, http://digilib.gmu.edu/dspace/handle/1920/6618 (3.05.2013).
  60. Nossiter A., Guinea-Bissau Premier, Election Front-Runner, Is Deposed in a Coup, „The New York Times”, 13.04.2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/14/world/africa/guinea-bissau-coup-removes-presidential-front-runner.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 (3.12.2012).
  61. Nossiter A., Leader Ousted, Nation Is Now a Drug Heaven, „New York Times”, 1.11.2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/02/world/africa/guinea-bissau-after-coupis-drug-trafficking-haven.html?ref=adamnossiter (3.12.2012).
  62. Obi C.I., Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D’Ivoire, “African Security, t. 2, 2009, z. 2-3.
  63. Padrão Telmudo M., Schiefer U., Disintegration and Resilience of Agrarian Societies in Africa – the Importance of Social and Genetic Resources. A Case Study on the Reception of Urban War Refugees in the South of Guinea-Bissau, [w:] Global Forces and Local Life-Worlds: Social Transformations, red. U. Schuerkens, London 2003.
  64. Padrão Temudo M., From ‘People’s Struggle’ to ‘This War of Today’: Entanglements of Peace and Conflict in Guinea-Bissau, „Africa”, t. 78, 2008, nr 2.
  65. Padrão Temudo M., From the Margins of the State to the Presidential Palace: The Balanta Case in Guinea-Bissau, „African Studies Review”, t. 52, September 2009, nr 2.
  66. Plácido dos Santos G., A centralidade da geopolítica subsaariana no desenvolvimento e consolidação institucional da Guiné-Bissau, „IPRIS Comentário”, nr 20, Instituto Português de Relações Internacionais e Segurança/Portuguese Institute of International Relations and Security 1.04.2015, http://www.ipris.org/php/download.php?fi d=836 (17.07.2015).
  67. Plácido dos Santos G., Elections in Guinea-Bissau: A Roadmap for Restoration of Constitutional Order, „IPRIS Viewpoints”, nr 139, Instituto Português de Relações Internacionais e Segurança/Portuguese Institute of International Relations and Security, March 2015, www.ipris.org/php/download.php?fi d=783 (17.07.2015).
  68. Polgreen L., Cowell A., Soldiers Kill Guinea-Bissau’s President After Death of Army Chief, Diplomats Say, „The New York Times”, 2.03.2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/03/world/africa/03guinea.html?_r=0 (3.05.2013).
  69. Portuguese Guinea: the PAIGC after Cabral, United States of America Department of State, 1.02.1973, Declassified PA/HO Department of State E.O. 12958, as amended May 4, 2006, http://2001-2009.state.gov/documents/organization/67534.pdf (17.07.2015).
  70. Press Freedom Index 2013, Reporters Without Borders, http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=classement&id_rubrique=1054 (21.07.2015).
  71. Project Completion Report. Guinea-Bissau. Bissau Port Project (Credit 1392-GUB), The World Bank Document, Report no. 9901, 16.09.1991, http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1991/09/16/000009265_3960925161900/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf (19.07.2015).
  72. Relea F., En el corazón del ‘narcoestado’, „El País”, 28.06.2009, http://elpais.com/diario/2009/06/28/domingo/1246161153_850215.html (30.06.2013).
  73. Rizzi K.R., A instabilidade contínua na Guiné-Bissau, “Boletim Meridiano 47”, 2010, nr 117.
  74. Sampaio M., Eleições são “primeiro passo” para resolver crise na Guiné-Bissau, DW, 27.06.2017, http://www.dw.com/pt-002/elei%C3%A7%C3%B5es-s%C3%A3o-primeiro-passo-para-resolver-crise-na-guin%C3%A9-bissau/a-39445380 (20.07.2017).
  75. Security Council, Ban commend Guinea-Bissau as electors count ballots, UN News Centre, 19.05.2014, http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=47834#.VbAE2NC8ld8 (22.07.2015).
  76. Senegal’s Casamance MFDC rebels declare a ceasefire, BBC News, 30.04.2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27221999 (21.07.2015).
  77. Six killed in Guinea-Bissau gunbattle - sources, BBC News, 22.10.2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-20022211 (6.05.2013).
  78. Smoltczyk A., Africa’s Cocaine Hub: Guinea-Bissau a ‘Drug Trafficker’s Dream”, „Der Spiegel”, 8.03.2013, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/violence-plagues-african-hub-of-cocaine-traffi cking-a-887306.html (1.05.2013).
  79. Soares de Oliveira R., Magnificent and Beggar Land: Angola Since the Civil War, Oxford 2014.
  80. Tomàs J., Resolución de «pequeños» conflictos en zonas de «grandes» conflictos. Una aproximación desde la antropología a las nociones endógenas de paz en Casamance (Senegal), „Vegueta. Anuario de la Facultad de Geografía e Historia”, 2014, nr 14.
  81. UNIOGBIS. United Nations Integrated Peacebuilding Office in Guinea-Bissau. Background, https://uniogbis.unmissions.org/en/background (23.07.2017).
  82. UNIOGBIS. United Nations Integrated Peacebuilding Office in Guinea-Bissau, https://uniogbis.unmissions.org/en (23.07.2017).
  83. UNIOGBIS. Zintegrowane Biuro Narodów Zjednoczonych ds. Budowania Pokoju w Gwinei-Bissau, Ośrodek Informacji ONZ w Warszawie, http://www.unic.un.org.pl/misje_pokojowe/uniogbis.php (23.07.2017).
  84. van Walraven K., West Africa, [w:] Africa Yearbook. Politics, Economy, and Society South of the Sahara in 2012, vol. 9, red. A. Mehler, H. Melber, K. van Walraven, Leiden/ Boston 2013.
  85. Veríssimo Correia Seabra assume liderança em Guiné-Bissau, „Correio da Manhã”, 14.09.2003, http://www.cmjornal.xl.pt/cm_ao_minuto/detalhe/verissimo-correia-seabra-assume-lideranca-em-guine-bissau.html (17.07.2015).
  86. Vulliamy E., How a tiny West African country became the world’s first narco-state, „The Guardian”, 9.03.2008, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/mar/09/drugstrade (1.05.2013).
  87. West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA), Office of the United States Trade Representative, https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/africa/regional-economiccommunities-rec/west-african-economic-and-monetary-union-uemoa (17.07.2015).
  88. Whiteman K., João Bernardo Vieira – obituary, „The Guardian”, 4.03.2009, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/mar/04/nino-vieira-obituary (22.07.2017).
  89. Will elections bring stability to Guinea-Bissau?, BBC News, 8.04.2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26891402 (20.07.2017).
  90. Williams P.D., War and Conflict in Africa, Cambridge/Malden, MA 2012.
  91. Wywiad autorki z A. Jannehem, dyrektorem wykonawczym Mo Ibrahim Foundation ds. rządów i instytucji w Afryce, Mo Ibrahim Foundation, Dakar Office, 25.07.2016, Dakar, Senegal.
  92. Wywiad Autorki z dyrektorem ds. finansowych bissauskiego Czerwonego Krzyża F. Pinto Biague oraz referentem ds. mediów D. Sanhá, 29.07.2016, Bissau, Gwinea Bissau.